Table 1 The migration routes of 19 important crops according to archaeology, genetics, and genomics data

Hordeum vulgare var. coeleste L.

Tibetan barley

Tibet is the center of domestication.

Tibet is the center of domestication.

The Fertile Crescent→north Pakistan→India→Nepal→southern Tibet.

Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.

Mustard

China is the center of origin; Central Asia, Himalaya, and Middle East are the center of origin.

Mitochondrial genome evidence: vegetable mustard: China→India→Pakistan→Central Asia→the Middle East (along the Ancient Tea Horse Road and the Silk Road);

SLAF-seq: China is the primary origin and diversity center.

Genome-seq: a monophyletic origin in west Asia 8,000-14,000 years ago, and at least three subsequent independent domestication events in the last 500-5,000 years: seed mustard near Central Asia, oilseed mustard in the Indian subcontinent and root mustard in East Asia.

Lactuca sativa L.

Lettuce

Southwest Asia→Ancient Egypt→Ancient Greece and Rome→Europe→America.

RNA-seq: the Fertile Crescent→Europe (west); the Fertile Crescent→China (along the ancient Silk Road; east).

Resequencing: the Caucasus→ancient Egypt→southern Europe→America.

Fagopyrum esculentum Moench

Buckwheat

Yunnan: to South East Asia, India, and Minor Asia in the 8^th century, to Siberia and Russia in the 13^th century, to Europe in the 15^th century, to the Americas in the 17^th century, and later to Africa.

Ruins: 1) Xindian ruins, Fufeng county, Shanxi Province (Holocene); 2) Xishanping ruins, Tianshui City, Gansu Province (Holocene, 4,650-4,300 cal. BP); 3) Chenqimogou ruins, Lintan County, Gansu Province (Qijia culture, 4,000 cal. BP); 4) Yingpandi ruins near the Huangshui watershed (2,500 cal. BP); 5) Xueshan ruins, Chengjiang County, Yunnan Province (from the late Neolithic period to the Bronze Age, Shanzhai culture; 6) Haimenkou ruins, Jianchuan County, Yunnan Province (the bronze age； 7) Bayantala ruins, Chifeng City, Inner Mongolia Province (Liao dynasty, 916-1,123 AD); 8) Sunchangqing ruins, Baicheng City, Jilin Province (Liao and Jin dynasties, Liao dynasty 916-1,123 AD, Jin dynasty 1,115-1,234 AD); 9) Donghuishan ruins, Minle County, Gansu Province (3,610-3,458 years ago).

Southern China→northern China, Korean peninsula, and Japan; southern China→Bhutan, Nepal, Kashmir, as well as Karakuram and Hindukush [mainly through the southern slopes of the Himalaya region].

Cicer arietinum L.

Chickpea

West/Central Asia→China. Near East, Central Asia, India, and Mediterranean were the first probable origin centers. South-eastern Turkey and adjoining Syria were the most probably origin place.

The Mediterranean/Fertile Crescent→Central Asia, and probably in parallel Central Asia→East Africa (Ethiopia) and South Aisa (India).

Hordeum vulgare L.

Barley

The Fertile Crescent→China.

Western Asian Fertile Crescent→Central and Eastern Europe (west) along northern regions of the Mediterranean and Turkmenistan and Pakistan (east)→Eastern Central Asia and South Asia→Eastern Kazakhstan→Eastern China and Southern India.

The Fertile Crescent→China.

The Upper Jordan Valley→China.

Triticum aestivum L.

Wheat

The Fertile Crescent→China.

Western Asian Fertile Crescent→Central and Eastern Europe [west] along northern regions of the Mediterranean and Turkmenistan and Pakistan [east] →Eastern Central Asia and South Asia→Eastern Kazakhstan→Eastern China and Southern India.

Iran→Central Asia→Altai Mountains→Qinghai, northern Tibet, middle and lower basin of the Yellow River, as well as Hexi Corridor (eastward).

Ziziphus jujube Mill.

Jujube

China→Korea→Japan/China→Europea→America

The Shanxi-Shaanxi area of China was primary domestication center and then disseminated into East China before finally extending into South China.

Pistacia vera L.

Pistachio

Central Asia (Native to the arid zones) → Iran (cultivated for 3000-4000 years) →Mediterranean Europe (by Romans).

Central Asia → Italy → Spain → other Mediterranean regions of Southern Europe→ North Africa→the Middle East→China→ the United States and Australia.

Originate from Central Asia and the Middle East.

Brassica rapa var. rapa L.

Turnip

Four possible origin place: Europeau-Central Asia, South Asia, East Asia, and Mediterranean Coast.

European–Central→Asia.

Medicago sativa L.

Alfalfa

Media in ancient Persia (Central Asia, Caucasus, and Iran)→Greece→Europe, North Africa→the New World and Australia→all over the world.

Alfalfa originated from Southwest Asia, and was likely first domesticated in Caucasus, Turkey, and Iran over thousand years ago.

Juglans regia L.

Walnut

West Asia→China.

Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L.

Cauliflower

Mediterranean→China.

Vitis vinifera L.

Grape

Near East→the South Caucasus→the western side of the Fertile Crescent, the Jordan Valley, and Egypt→Europe.

Near East is the origin place.

Spinacia oleracea L.

Spinach

West Asia is the origin place.

S. turkestanica was the most likely ancestor of cultivated spinach, and spinach was introduced into China via Nepal after domestication.

Iran→North Africa and Europe→North America.

Malus pumila Mill.

Apple

Tianshan Mountains → Europe (along the Silk Road).

Tianshan Mountains → Europe (along the Silk Road).

Cucumis sativus L.

Cucumber

India is the Origin place.

India is the Origin place.

Morus alba L.

Mulberry

Originate from China, including four major planting areae, Bayu region, Central Plains, Jiangnan Area, and the Pearl River Delta Region.

Pisum sativum L.

Pea

Pea occurred Near East about 10, 000 years ago. Ethiopia, Mediterranean, Transcaucasia, western Asia, western Asia Minor were origin center, and Turkmen and Iran were secondary origin center.