Fig. 5

Genetic gain per cost × 10^− 3 (per 10,000 dollars invested) across training set scenarios for the HEL and USP datasets, comparing the two optimization kernels (GET and GWT) and the benchmark (MTMET CV2, where TRS = 70%). The cost includes the phenotyping of TRS (on average 3 USD per trait per plot) and the whole dataset’s genotyping (20 USD per sample). Where GET: genotype x environment x trait; GWT: genotype x environmental covariates x trait; MTMET CV2: multi-trait multi-environment model with cross-validation CV2; PS: phenotypic selection