Table 1 Pigments as a source of nutraceuticals in fruits
From: Fruit ripening: dynamics and integrated analysis of carotenoids and anthocyanins
Pigment | Properties | Sources | Health benefits | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
CAROTENOIDS & APOCAROTENOIDS | ||||
 β Carotene | Cyclic carotene, non-polar, high melting point, crystalline, and gives an orange color | Asparagus, apricots, broccoli, carrot, Chinese cabbage, paprika, grapefruit | Precursor of vitamin A, antioxidant, lowers risk of heart diseases, cancers, boosts immune system, and protects from age-related macular degeneration (AMD) | [19] [20] |
 Lycopene | Non-polar, heat stable, linear structure, and gives a red color | Tomato, watermelon, papaya, carrot, pink grapefruit | Antioxidant, reduces risk of myocardial infarction and high blood pressure, attenuates LDL cholesterol oxidation and risks of prostate, lung, uterine and breast cancer, promotes bone health, delays neurodegeneration | [21] [22] [23] |
 Lutein and Zeaxanthin | Polar, and gives yellow to red color | Corn, kiwi, orange zucchini, spinach | Protects against (AMD) and cognition | [24] [25] |
 Bixin | Apocarotenoid, sensitive to light, pH, soluble in organic polar solvents and gives a deep orange color | Annatto (Bixa orellana) | Anti-oxidative, anti-cancer, hypoglycemic, antibiotic, anti-inflammatory properties | [26] [27] |
 Crocin | apocarotenoid, water-soluble and gives an orange color | saffron (Crocus sativus. L) | antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic, antidepressant, improves cognition and occurrence of autoimmune diseases | [28] [29] |
ANTHOCYANINS | ||||
 Cyanidin, delphinidin, pelargonidin, peonidin, petunidin, malvidin | Water-soluble, vacuolar pigments, sensitive to pH change and can appear as either red, purple, blue or black | Berries, strawberry, eggplant, cherry, black grapes, red cabbage | Potent antioxidant, prevents dyslipidemia and impaired glucose metabolism and possess anti-breast cancer properties, | [30] [31] [32] |
CHLOROPHYLL | ||||
 Chlorophyll a Chlorophyll b | Green, lipid-soluble, tetrapyrrole derivatives, light harvesting pigments, | Spinach, broccoli, wheat grass, pak choi, rocket salad | Chemo protector, antioxidant properties, detoxifies liver, safeguards against anaemia, and sinusitis, exhibits ergogenic effects | [33] [34] |
BETALAIN | ||||
 Betacyanin Betaxanthin | Water soluble, vacuolar pigments, sensitive to pH, betacyanin give red to violet color, betaxanthin give yellow to orange color | Red beetroot, amaranth, prickly pear, red pitaya | Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, protects against skin and lung cancer, anti-microbial and anti-lipidemic | [35] [36] [37] |