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Changes in fruit quality properties and phytochemical substances of kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa) grown in different agro-ecological conditions during cold storage

BMC Plant Biology volume 24, Article number: 795 (2024) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

The changes in the physical structures of the products are the first things that consumers pay attention to. Therefore, it is essential and significant importance to take measures to improve the storage conditions of products and to minimize quality losses. The main objective of the study was to evaluate the effects of agro-ecological conditions on bioactive compounds and fruit quality of kiwifruit during cold storage. The ‘Hayward’ kiwifruit cultivar grown in Ordu, Giresun, Samsun, Rize, and Yalova provinces of Türkiye were kept at 0 ± 0.5 °C and relative humidity of 90 ± 5% for 150 d.

Results

The kiwifruit obtained from the provinces of Yalova, Ordu, and Giresun experienced the least weight loss during cold storage. Kiwifruit from Samsun and Yalova provinces had the lowest fruit firmness, while those from Giresun had the highest on 150th d. The changes were observed in the skin and flesh colors of the kiwifruit belonging to all cultivation areas. The amount of vitamin C increased throughout the study in all ecological conditions, but the Yalova province’s kiwifruit was found to have the highest levels. Additionally, in all ecologies, kiwifruit showed an increase in antioxidant activity, total phenolics, and total flavonoids, all known to have beneficial effects on human health. The total antioxidant activity and total phenolics were highest in the kiwifruit of Yalova province, but the total flavonoids were found in the kiwifruit of Rize and Ordu provinces.

Conclusion

The study’s results revealed that kiwifruit’s bioactive compounds and quality parameters may vary depending on the cultivation area. Additionally, it can be stated that Yalova province kiwifruit experiences the least amount of postharvest quality losses.

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Background

Kiwifruit is an important fruit species that has been lovingly consumed by consumers worldwide in recent years and continues to increase its popularity day by day, mainly owing to its nutritional value, unique taste, and associated health benefits [1]. The first studies on kiwifruit cultivation in Türkiye started in Yalova province in 1987. Over time, cultivation began to spread rapidly in the country’s eastern Black Sea region provinces such as Rize, Trabzon, Ordu, and Giresun [2]. As of 2022, the country’s production exceeded 100 000 tons, and the provinces where the highest production is realized are Yalova, Bursa, Samsun, Ordu, and Mersin [3].

The primary sources of vitamin C are fresh fruits and vegetables, so increasing its concentration is thought to impact human nutrition significantly [4]. One of the fruit species with a very high vitamin C content is the kiwifruit [5]. The amount of vitamin C in fruit, including kiwifruit, depends on several factors, including the growing environment and conditions, fertilizers, the fruit’s maturity, harvest time, the storage ambient, and ripening conditions [6]. Along with vitamin C, kiwifruit is a rich source of dietary fiber, potassium, vitamin E, folate, antioxidants, phytonutrients, and enzymes involved in several functional and metabolic processes [6]. Kiwifruit has therapeutic and medicinal traits against diseases related to the cardiovascular system, kidney problems, digestive disorders, cancer, diabetes, bone, and eye problems due to its rich content of nutrients such as minerals, vitamins, and phytochemicals [7].

Damages occurring in fresh fruit and vegetables during the post-harvest period negatively affect the choice of products by consumers. Especially the changes in the physical structures of the products are the first things that consumers pay attention to. Therefore, it is essential and significant importance to take measures to improve the storage conditions of products and to minimize quality losses. For this purpose, researchers are focused on different techniques such as cold storage, modified atmosphere packaging [8], and edible coatings [9] in different fruit species. But it should not be forgotten that postharvest technologies can only keep quality stable; they cannot raise it. Therefore, it is crucial that producers comprehend how a wide range of preharvest variables can interact to affect quality both during and after harvest [10].

Therefore, the main study question is: Is there an effect of various growing regions on the change of quality parameters and biochemical content of kiwifruit in the post-harvest period? This research hypothesized that different agro-ecologic conditions would affect the fruit quality characteristics and changes in biochemical content of the ‘Hayward’ kiwifruit cultivar stored in the cold postharvest period. The study’s main purpose is to evaluate the effect of agro-ecologic conditions on quality traits and bioactive substances in the postharvest cold storage period.

Materials and methods

Plant materials

The study’s plant material consisted of the kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa cv. ‘Hayward’) grown in Ordu, Rize, Giresun, Samsun, and Yalova provinces of Türkiye. Ordu, located between the 40°-41’ northern parallels and the 37°-38’ eastern meridians, experiences a coastal climate with cool summers, mild winters, and precipitation in all seasons due to the Black Sea influence. In the inland areas, however, a continental climate prevails, characterized by hot and dry summers and cold, snowy winters. Rize is situated in northeastern Anatolia; in the eastern part of the Eastern Black Sea coastal strip, between the 40°-22’ and 41°-28’ eastern meridians and the 40°-20’ and 41°-20’ northern parallels. Rize experiences a climate with cool summers, mild winters, and rainfall in all seasons. Giresun, located in the Eastern Black Sea section of the Black Sea Region, between the 37° 50’ and 39° 12’ eastern longitudes and the 40° 07’ and 41° 08’ northern latitudes, features a mild and rainy climate. Samsun, situated between the 40° 50’ − 41° 51’ northern latitudes and the 37° 08’ and 34° 25’ eastern longitudes, generally has a temperate climate. However, the climate varies between the coastal strip and the inland areas. The coastal strip is influenced by the Black Sea climate, resulting in hot summers, mild and rainy winters. In the inland areas, winters are cold with rain and snow, while summers are cool. Located in northwestern Türkiye and the southeastern part of the Marmara Region, between the 28° 45’ and 29° 35’ eastern longitudes and the 40° 28’ and 40° 45’ northern latitudes, Yalova’s climate is a transition between the Mediterranean and Black Sea climates as a macro-climate type. At times, it also reflects continental climate characteristics. Summers in Yalova are dry and hot, while winters are mild and rainy.

Care was taken to ensure that the orchards selected from the cultivation regions had similar conditions and that the sampled trees were of similar age and homogeneous product load.

Methods

The research was designed according to completely randomized block design with three replications. Kiwifruit with 6.5% soluble solids content (SSC) were hand-harvested in November. Kiwifruit were transferred with refrigerated vehicle (15 ± 0.5 °C and 80 ± 5%) to the laboratory.

In addition to the measurements performed at the harvest, 15 crates were randomly created with 20 fruit for each location. Kiwifruit were placed in 5 kg modified atmosphere bags (MAP) having 2203 cc m− 2 × day × atm of CO2 and 150.0 g m− 2 × day × atm permeability of water vapor (StePac, Xtend, Türkiye). The kiwifruit was pre-cooled in cold air for 24 h at 4 °C and 90% RH. Then clips were used to close. Finally, kiwifruit were kept at 0 ± 0.5 °C and 90 ± 5% RH for 150 d. Kiwifruit was analyzed on the 30th, 60th, 90th, 120th and 150th days of cold storage. Three crates (rep) from each location were used for analysis in each period. Each box represented one repetition.

Weight loss, respiration rate, firmness O2 and CO2 concentration

Fruit (about 1 kg) were weighed with a digital scale (Poland, Radwag) sensitive to 0.01 g in each analysis period from the beginning of the cold storage. The obtained values were calculated using the formula “WL (%) = 100 × (Wi-Wf) / Wi” and expressed as % (WL: weight loss. Wi: initial weight. Wf: final weight) [11].

The respiration rate was determined according to the method used by Ozturk and Yucadag [12]. Five fruit in each rep were kept in a 2 L gas-tight glass container at 22 ± 1.0 °C and 90% RH for 1 h, and the amount of CO2 released to the outside during this process was measured with a digital carbon dioxide sensor (USA, Oregon, Vernier Software). The values obtained were calculated in nmol CO2 kg− 1 h− 1 based on the weight and volume of the fruit placed in the glass container. In addition, O2 and CO2 concentrations in MAP-treated fruit were measured monthly with an analyzer (France, Abiss legend) and expressed in % as described by Ozturk and Aglar [13]. Firmness measurements were performed with a digital firmness meter (Agrosta 100 field, Agrotechnologie, France) on ten fruit for each rep. Measurements were conducted in opposite equatorial fruit regions and recorded as a percentage. The values read on the digital firmness meter approach 0, the softening of the fruit flesh, the values close to 100 indicate the firm.

Fruit skin and flesh color

Color measurements (on ten fruit) were determined in terms of CIE L*, a*, and b* using a colorimeter (Japan, Tokyo, Minolta, model CR-400) at each analysis period. Chroma value = (a*2+b*2)1/2, hue angle value was determined by the formula hº= tan− 1 x b*/a* [14].

Soluble solids content (SSC), titratable acidity and vitamin C

SSC was determined in juice using a digital refractometer (PAL-1, McCormick Fruit Tech. Yakima, USA) and expressed as %. Titratable acidity (TA) was expressed in citric acid (g citric acid kg− 1) based on the amount of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) consumed in the titration and titrated with 0.1 mol L− 1 (N) NaOH until the pH reached 8.1 after 10 mL of juice was diluted with 10 mL of distilled water. In determining vitamin C, 5 mL of fruit juice sample was determined after dilution with 50 mL of oxalic acid using the reflectometer (Merck RQflex plus 10, Germany). Values read on the device were expressed as g kg− 1 [15].

Total phenolics, total flavonoids, and antioxidant activity

Total phenolics were determined using Folin-Ciocalteu’s reagent according to the method used by Beyhan et al. [16]. Accordingly, the solution prepared was measured at a wavelength of 760 nm in a spectrophotometer, and the results were calculated in gallic acid equivalent (GAE) and expressed as g GAE kg− 1 fresh weight (fw). Total flavonoids were determined according to the method of Zhishen et al. [17]. Accordingly, the solution prepared was measured at a wavelength of 510 nm in a spectrophotometer, and the results were calculated according to the quercetin equivalent (QE) and expressed as g QE kg− 1 fw. Ferric Ions (Fe+ 3) Reducing Antioxidant Power Assay (FRAP) and 1.1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazil (DPPH) assays were used to determine antioxidant activity in the study. The FRAP method was carried out according to the method used by Benzie and Strain [18]. Accordingly, the solution prepared was measured at a wavelength of 593 nm in a spectrophotometer, and the values obtained were presented as mmol Trolox equivalent (TE) kg− 1. The DPPH test was performed by modifying Blois [19] method. The solution prepared was measured at 517 nm in a spectrophotometer (Shimadzu UV 1280, Tokyo, Japan), and the results were calculated as mmol TE kg− 1 fw.

Statistical analysis

Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to determine whether the data were normally distributed. The group variances’ homogeneity control was verified using the Levene test. Tukey’s multiple-comparison test was used to determine whether there were significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) between the locations following the variance analysis of the data. The SAS software (SAS 9.1 version, USA) was used for the statistical analyses.

Results

Weight loss, respiration rate, firmness, O2 and CO2 concentration

The differences in the findings obtained were significant (p < 0.05). Weight loss occurred during the cold storage in all ecological conditions. Accordingly, in all measurement periods, the highest weight loss kiwifruit was observed in Rize and Samsun provinces and the lowest in Yalova province (Fig. 1A). While the respiration rate of kiwifruit belonging to Samsun and Rize provinces was the highest in the 30th day of the cold storage, the lowest was detected in Yalova and Ordu provinces. When the 60th, 90th, and 150th day measurements were observed, it was determined that the lowest respiration rate was in the kiwifruit of Yalova province and the highest in the kiwifruit of Samsun and Rize provinces (Fig. 1B). When firmness data was examined at harvest, the firmness of kiwifruit grown in Yalova was higher than in other ecological environments. The firmness values of the kiwifruit decreased in all ecological environments during the cold storage. In general, Samsun kiwifruit had the lowest firmness in all measurement periods. In addition, from the 90th day onwards, Yalova was found to have a similar low firmness level to Samsun province. At the end of cold storage, the highest firmness was determined in the kiwifruit of Giresun province, while the firmness of kiwifruit grown in Rize and Ordu were similar and lower (Fig. 1C).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Changes in weight loss (a), respiration rate (b) and firmness (c) of kiwifruit grown in different ecological conditions during cold storage. Means shown with vertically the different lowercase letters were statistically different (Tukey’s test, p ≤ 0.05). * 0 and 100 indicated that the fruit was too soft and too firm, respectively

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During the cold storage, the O2 concentration in the kiwifruit decreased, and the CO2 concentration increased. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were detected in gas concentrations of ecological conditions. At the end of the cold storage period, the highest O2 gas concentration was measured in kiwifruit from Ordu province and the lowest in kiwifruit from Rize province (Fig. 2A). While the CO2 concentration was the lowest in the kiwifruit of Ordu province, it was higher in other ecological conditions (Fig. 2B).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Changes in O2 (a) and CO2 (b) concentration of kiwifruit grown in different ecological conditions during cold storage. Means shown with vertically the different lowercase letters were statistically different (Tukey’s test, p ≤ 0.05)

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Fruit color

In the study, the kiwifruit L* (skin) value of Samsun and Yalova provinces was significantly higher than the other cultivation environments at harvest and on the 30th day. In the 60th and 90th day measurements, the L* (skin) value of the kiwifruit of Samsun was significantly higher than the values of other provinces. Statistically similar L* (skin) values were determined between the cultivation environments in the 120th and 150th day measurement periods (Fig. 3A). In the cold storage measurements, significant differences were determined between the cultivation environments’ chroma (skin) values only in the 90th day measurements. In this measurement period, it was determined that skin chroma values of kiwifruit grown in Ordu and Rize provinces were significantly lower than in all other provinces (Fig. 3B). The hue angle (skin) value was lower in kiwifruit from Ordu and Samsun provinces at harvest compared to other ecological conditions. While the hue angle (skin) values of the kiwifruit of the cultivation regions were at a similar level on the 30th and 60th d of cold storage, hue angle values of kiwifruit grown in Ordu were significantly lower in the 90th, 120th and 150th d (Fig. 3C).

Fig. 3
figure 3

Changes in L* (a), chroma (b), and hue angle (c) of skin of kiwifruit grown in different ecological conditions during cold storage. Means shown with vertically the different lowercase letters were statistically different (Tukey’s test, p ≤ 0.05)

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A decrease was detected in the L* (flesh) value during cold storage. The L* (flesh) values of kiwifruit belonging to Ordu and Samsun provinces were significantly lower than those of other areas in the 90th and 150th day measurements (Fig. 4A). It was observed that the chroma (flesh) value was at a similar level in all measurement periods except the 150th day. On the 150th day, it was determined the highest in the kiwifruit of Samsun, and the lowest in Yalova provinces (Fig. 4B). On the 150th day, the highest hue angle (flesh) value was observed in kiwifruit from Ordu province, while it was significantly lower in other provinces’ kiwifruit (Fig. 4C).

Fig. 4
figure 4

Changes in L* (a), chroma (b), and hue angle (c) of flesh of kiwifruit grown in different ecological conditions during cold storage. Means shown with vertically the different lowercase letters were statistically different (Tukey’s test, p ≤ 0.05)

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Soluble solids content (SSC), titratable acidity and vitamin C

While the soluble solids content (SSC) values of Ordu and Rize were significantly lower in the 30th and 60th day measurements compared to other provinces, Rize kiwifruit in the 90th, 120th and 150th days were significantly lower compared to other cultivation environments. The SSC values of Samsun and Yalova provinces’ kiwifruit were significantly higher than those of other provinces on the 120th and 150th days (Fig. 5A). At the harvest, 60th, 90th, 120th and 150th days, the acidity of the kiwifruit grown in Giresun and Yalova provinces were significantly higher than in the other provinces. In the 150th day measurement, kiwifruit grown in Rize and Samsun provinces were significantly lower titratable acidity values than in other provinces (Fig. 5B). At the harvest period analysis, the vitamin C value of the kiwifruit of Yalova province was significantly higher than in other cultivation environments. While vitamin C values of the kiwifruit grown in Yalova and Samsun provinces were significantly higher in the 30th, 60th and 90th day measurements compared to other provinces, vitamin C values of the kiwifruit grown in Yalova province were higher than the other provinces in the 120th and 150th day. Vitamin C values of the kiwifruit grown in Giresun and Ordu provinces were significantly lower than others in the 120th and 150th day (Fig. 5C).

Fig. 5
figure 5

Changes in SSC (a), titratable acidity (b), and vitamin C (c) of kiwifruit grown in different ecological conditions during cold storage. Means shown with vertically the different lowercase letters were statistically different (Tukey’s test, p ≤ 0.05)

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Total phenolics, total flavonoids, and antioxidant activity

In the study, the highest total phenolics were determined in the kiwifruit of Yalova province in all measurement periods, including the harvest. The lowest value was obtained from the kiwifruit of Giresun province at the harvest and on the 30th day measurements. It was determined that the total phenolics of the kiwifruit grown in Ordu and Giresun provinces were lower on the 60th, 90th and 120th days compared to the other applications. During cold storage, the total phenolics of the kiwifruit grown in Yalova were higher than in all ecological environments (Fig. 6A). The highest total flavonoids were detected in the kiwifruit of Ordu in the measurements performed on the harvest date, 30th, 60th, 90th and 120th days. On the 150th day, the kiwifruit of Rize and Ordu provinces had higher total phenolic content than the others (Fig. 6B).

Fig. 6
figure 6

Changes in total phenolics (a), total flavonoids (b) and antioxidant activity [DPPH (c) and FRAP (d) assays] of kiwifruit grown in different ecological conditions during cold storage. Means shown with vertically the different lowercase letters were statistically different (Tukey’s test, p ≤ 0.05)

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According to DPPH, while the antioxidant activity of the kiwifruit of Rize province was higher compared to other areas during the harvest period, on the contrary, the lowest antioxidant activity was determined in the kiwifruit of Rize province on the 150th day measurements. The antioxidant activity values of Yalova kiwifruit were higher than those of the other provinces during cold storage, excluding the harvest period (Fig. 6C). According to the FRAP test, the highest antioxidant activity was determined in the kiwifruit of Yalova province and the lowest in the Samsun and Giresun provinces at the harvest. Again, in this period, kiwifruit belonging to Rize and Ordu provinces were also included in the same group. While the kiwifruit of Yalova province had the highest antioxidant activity in all measurement periods, when the 150th day measurements were considered, Yalova and Giresun provinces were in the same group and had the highest values, and the lowest values in kiwifruit from Rize and Samsun provinces (Fig. 6D).

Discussion

Quality is adversely impacted by post-harvest water loss in fruits and vegetables. Preventing losses occurring in the postharvest period, preserving quality, and preventing waste simultaneously can only be overcome by applying innovative postharvest technologies and solutions [20]. In our study, it was observed that different growing environments affected weight loss, firmness, respiration rate, and O2 and CO2 gas concentrations. It was determined that the weight loss of kiwifruit from Ordu and Giresun provinces, especially in Yalova province, was delayed during cold storage. In kiwifruit, water loss is associated with the degradation of outer layers, hairiness, and cell death of skin tissue [21]. Depending on the species and cultivars, fruit skin characteristics change during growth and impact water loss as the fruit ages. The relationship between seasonal fruit transpiration and cuticle and wax layer thickness variations is particularly significant [22]. In addition, weight loss is seen as an essential quality criterion that changes depending on the relative humidity and respiration events in the storage environments of the fruits [11]. Since kiwifruit is a type of fruit with climacteric characteristics, it continues its respiratory activities in the post-harvest period and thus continues the ripening process [23]. The plant hormone ethylene is regarded as the primary signaling molecule that regulates the majority of fruit ripening processes in climacteric fruit [24]. As seen in our study, while the amount of CO2 in the environment increases in this process, the amount of O2 decreases. As the amount of ethylene hormone secreted in fruits increases, this process occurs more quickly [25]. In many climacteric fruit species, the respiration rate increases rapidly after harvest and then decreases with the progression of ripening [26]. It is known that ambient temperature mainly affects this situation. Similarly, respiration rates of kiwifruit examined in our study showed a rapid increase until the 30th day after harvest, and there was a decrease in the measurements made afterwards. Among the climacteric species, kiwifruit is shown as one of the most sensitive to ethylene hormone, and it is reported that this has a significant effect on the softening of the fruit flesh [27]. It was observed that the firmness of the fruit flesh decreased in all ecological conditions during the study. However, it was determined that the fruit of Giresun province had the highest firmness at the end of cold storage.

In this study, changes in color characteristics were determined in both the skin and the flesh of fruit belonging to different cultivation areas during cold storage. It can be stated that the L* value, which indicates the brightness of the fruit, appears to be brighter in the skin of kiwifruit from the provinces of Yalova and Samsun and in the flesh of kiwifruit from the province of Yalova when compared to other areas. In terms of the chroma value, which represents the saturation of the color, that is, the vitality, it can be said that the color of the kiwifruit of Samsun province is more vivid both in the fruit skin and flesh at the end of the storage. When the hue angle, which represents the hue of the color, was examined, the fruit belonging to Yalova province were found to have the highest values in the fruit skin, and the fruit belonging to the Ordu province in the fruit flesh. Natural pigments in fruits regulate color changes, and it is said that some changes may take place as the fruit ripens [28]. Delaying these changes as much as possible will be beneficial, especially since it is a critical quality criterion directly affecting consumer preference [13]. In this context, it is seen in our study that different growing environments may affect fruit color changes during cold storage.

It is reported that the vitamin C content of fresh fruits and vegetables tends to decrease rapidly after harvest [29]. As a matter of fact, in different studies conducted with kiwifruit, it was reported that the vitamin C content decreased in the cold storage period [12, 13]. On the contrary, it was determined that the vitamin C content increased during cold storage in our study. It was determined that the highest vitamin C content was found in the kiwifruit of Yalova. It is thought that this difference seen in our study may be related to the increase in total phenolics and flavonoids, especially in the antioxidant activity of kiwifruit. It has been reported that there may be a strong correlation between these characteristics [30]. Similarly, it has been reported that antioxidant capacity affects vitamin C in fruits [31]. In our study, antioxidant activity and total phenolic and flavonoid contents increased during cold storage as if supporting this situation. The highest total antioxidant activity (according to DPPH and FRAP assays) and total phenolics were determined in kiwifruit from Yalova province, and total flavonoids in kiwifruit from Rize and Ordu provinces. The climate conditions, temperature, humidity, and rainfall amounts of the regions, as well as the soil structure, minerals, and nutrients present in the soil, and the cultural practices applied, can affect the fruit quality and consequently the changes that occur during the storage period.

Conclusion

During the study, important findings were obtained that cultivation environments affect important quality parameters that directly affect consumer preference, such as weight loss, firmness, color, vitamin C, antioxidant activity, total phenolic, and flavonoids. Preventing or delaying these losses, especially in the postharvest periods, is of great economic importance. As a result of our research, it can be concluded that kiwifruit from Yalova province typically experiences the most minor loss in these characteristics.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

Abbreviations

GAE:

Gallic acid equivalent

SSC:

Soluble solids content

TE:

Trolox equivalent

QE:

Quercetin equivalent

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Acknowledgements

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No financial support was received for the study.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture, Ordu University, Ordu, Türkiye

    Burhan Ozturk & Murat Korkmaz

  2. Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture, Van Yüzüncü Yıl University, Van, Türkiye

    Erdal Aglar

Authors
  1. Burhan Ozturk
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  2. Murat Korkmaz
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  3. Erdal Aglar
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Contributions

Burhan Ozturk: Visualization, Conceptualization, Methodology, Data analyzing, Supervision, Writing - original draft, Review, and editing. Murat Korkmaz: Investigations, Data collections, Visualization. Erdal Aglar: Methodology, Supervision, Visualization, Writing - original draft, Review, and editing.

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Correspondence to Burhan Ozturk or Erdal Aglar.

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Plant materials were taken from growers’ orchard in Ordu, Rize, Giresun, Samsun, and Yalova provinces. Necessary permissions were obtained verbally from the breeders for the use of the material. There is no problem in terms of ethics. In this sense, researchers are responsible for any problems that may occur and provide assurance.

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Ozturk, B., Korkmaz, M. & Aglar, E. Changes in fruit quality properties and phytochemical substances of kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa) grown in different agro-ecological conditions during cold storage. BMC Plant Biol 24, 795 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-024-05507-5

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Keywords

BMC Plant Biology

ISSN: 1471-2229

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