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Insights into the physiology, biochemistry and ecological significance of the red seaweed Tricleocarpa fragilis in the Andaman Sea

BMC Plant Biology volume 24, Article number: 765 (2024) Cite this article

Abstract

The present study focused on the physiological and biochemical aspects of Tricleocarpa fragilis, red seaweed belonging to the phylum Rhodophyta, along the South Andaman coast, with particular attention given to its symbiotic relationships with associated flora and fauna. The physicochemical parameters of the seawater at the sampling station, such as its temperature, pH, and salinity, were meticulously analyzed to determine the optimal harvesting period for T. fragilis. Seaweeds attach to rocks, dead corals, and shells in shallow areas exposed to moderate wave action because of its habitat preferences. Temporal variations in biomass production were estimated, revealing the highest peak in March, which was correlated with optimal seawater conditions, including a temperature of 34 ± 1.1 °C, a pH of 8 ± 0.1, and a salinity of 32 ± 0.8 psu. GC‒MS analysis revealed n-hexadecanoic acid as the dominant compound among the 36 peaks, with major bioactive compounds identified as fatty acids, diterpenes, phenolic compounds, and hydrocarbons. This research not only enhances our understanding of ecological dynamics but also provides valuable insights into the intricate biochemical processes of T. fragilis. The established antimicrobial potential and characterization of bioactive compounds from T. fragilis lay a foundation for possible applications in the pharmaceutical industry and other industries.

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Introduction

Seaweeds constitute a significant portion of marine biomass, inhabiting environments ranging from intertidal regions to sea depths [1]. However, the distribution of seaweed is affected by numerous environmental factors, such as substrate, wave patterns, water temperature, salinity, pH, and depth [2]. For instance, observations along the South Andaman Coast revealed that the red seaweed Tricleocarpa fragilis tends to inhabit intertidal and subtidal zones and often attaches to hard rocks, dead corals, and shells of mollusks. The distribution pattern of seaweeds and their status in different coastal parts of India has been reported by several studies [3,4,5] including their availability in the Andaman Sea [6,7,8,9]. It has been suggested that physicochemical parameters such as temperature, irradiance, nutrients, pH and salinity play important roles in seaweed physiology and distribution [10,11,12]. Observations have indicated that in the natural environment, both the floral and faunal associations of seaweed communities play important roles due to the specific benefits they provide to both the host and the environment [13,14,15]. The faunal association of these associates is mainly attributed to the need for the organism for its food and breeding habitats and the protection of juveniles against tidal currents and waves and from predators. Seaweeds support different associated organisms due to their special features, including their heteromorphic life cycles, texture or architectural complexities. The present study involved the use of calcified, branched seaweed, Tricleocarpa fragilis (L.) Huisman and R. A. Townsend (1993), from the South Andaman Sea, India. The availability of the species T. fragilis has also been studied globally [8, 16]. The current study is the first to explore the physiology and ecology of T. fragilis, which includes its associated fauna. However, there are few reports on the floral and faunal associations of different marine algae from the Indian coasts [14, 15] and this study represents the first investigation of this nature in the Andaman Sea.

Furthermore, seaweeds are predominantly employed in the production of commercially significant polysaccharides such as agar, alginate, carrageenan, and fucoidan. While seaweeds serve primarily as a culinary staple in Asian countries, in India, their primary use lies in the production of phycocolloids rather than as food. They are potentially renewable resources for novel bioactive compounds and possess various biological activities against numerous diseases, such as cancer [17], diabetes [18], hypertension [19], hemolysis [20] and antioxidant activity [21]. The majority of these compounds are terpenes, phlorotannins, acrylic acid, phenolic compounds, steroids, halogenated ketones, fatty acids, cyclic polysulfides, chlorellin derivatives, halogenated aliphatic compounds, sesquiterpenes and diterpenoids [22, 23]. The need to develop novel therapeutic drugs from natural resources arises from the increase in multidrug-resistant microorganisms. Therefore, finding structurally unique biologically active compounds with strong effects against resistant bacterial pathogens has become the main theme of bioactive compound research today. Generally, the antimicrobial properties of seaweed have been widely studied, and compounds such as diterpene-sargafuran from the brown seaweed Sargassum macrocarpum [24] 10-hydroxykahukuene B from the red seaweed Laurencia mariannensis [25] and zonarol and isozonarol sesquiterpenes from the brown seaweed Dictyopteris zonarioides [26] have been reported. There is not much information on the antimicrobial activity of seaweeds from the Andaman Sea [27, 28].

Despite extensive research on the ecological roles and bioactive compounds of seaweeds, there are significant gaps in our understanding of T. fragilis, particularly within the Andaman Sea. While studies have documented the distribution patterns of various seaweeds along the Indian coastline, detailed investigations into the specific environmental interactions and associated faunal communities of T. fragilis in this region remain limited. Additionally, although the bioactive potential of seaweeds has been widely recognized, there is a notable scarcity in the characterization of bioactive compounds specific to T. fragilis from the Andaman Sea. Previous research has largely focused on other seaweed species and geographical areas, resulting in an incomplete understanding of the unique properties and potential pharmaceutical applications of T. fragilis. Based on earlier findings, it can be inferred that bioassay guided purification, fractionation and characterization of active products from seaweeds are essential for the development of bioactive potent compounds. Addressing these gaps, the current study aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the ecology and bioactivity of T. fragilis, thereby contributing to a more thorough understanding of its ecological significance and potential as a source of novel bioactive compounds.

Materials and methods

Study area

The current investigation was carried out during the low tide period following the full moon and new moon days, and seven sampling stations along the coast of South Andaman (Fig. 1) were established to survey the availability of T. fragilis in South Andaman. Table 1 provides a concise overview of the sampling stations, including their geographic coordinates, physical characteristics, environmental factors, and the diversity of seaweed species observed at each location along the South Andaman coast.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Sampling stations along the coast of South Andaman

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Table 1 Detailed overview of the geographic coordinates and unique traits of the sampling stations
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Seaweed sampling and identification of associated flora and fauna

The specimens of T. fragilis were collected using the methodology outlined by [29]. Quadrates measuring 1 m×1 m were positioned parallel to the shoreline at three locations along a transect, spaced at intervals of 10 m for enumeration purposes. Seaweeds within the quadrates were handpicked and placed in a sampling bag and then transported to the laboratory in an icebox. The seaweed samples were thoroughly washed with seawater to eliminate sand and other epiphytic fauna adhering to the thallus surface. Identification was done using the following keys [16, 30, 31].

Seasonal biomass production

The seasonal biomass production of T. fragilis was studied by the method described by [29]. The study was conducted at sampling station 2 from December 2016–December 2017. T. fragilis were counted at a quadrat size of 1 m× 1 m. For the biomass study the samples were weighed (dry weight) with a digital balance to the nearest 0.01 g and the amount of biomass produced was recorded in grams per meter square area.

Effect of physicochemical parameters on seasonal biomass production

The major physicochemical parameters of seawater, viz., temperature, pH and salinity, were recorded at the collection site. The temperature was measured using a thermometer, and the readings were expressed in °C. Salinity was recorded using a refractometer and is expressed as psu. The pH was measured using a pH meter. Correlation analysis between the environmental attributes and T. fragilis biomass production was carried out using Microsoft Excel.

Preparation of crude extracts from T. fragilis

Samples of T. fragilis were collected by the method of [29]. Samples were handpicked from sampling station 2, Marina park (Sesostris Bay) (Lat. 11°66.927′ N; Long. 92°74.9347′ E). The seaweed samples were first washed with seawater, packed in the sampling bag, brought to the laboratory in an ice box and again washed under running tap water for the removal of attached epiphytes and sand particles. Finally, the samples were washed with distilled water. The washed samples were allowed to dry under shade for one week at room temperature, and once they dried completely and achieved a constant weight, the samples were ground with the help of an electronic blender. The powdered sample was stored at 4 °C for further analyses. The crude extract of T. fragilis was prepared by the method of [32] with minor modifications. Ten grams of dried seaweed powder was placed into a 250 ml conical flask and mixed with 100 ml of chloroform. The mixture was then left at room temperature for one week with periodic shaking. Afterward, the mixture was filtered through Whatman No. 1 filter paper, and the solvents were evaporated using a rotary evaporator (Buchi RII Rotavapour) at 45 °C under reduced pressure. The obtained crude extract was stored at 4 °C for subsequent purification.

Purification of the active crude extract by open column chromatography and its bioassay

The active crude seaweed extract was purified and fractioned by the modified method described by [33] using column chromatography on silica gel 60–120 mesh (Himedia). A glass column (4 cm × 60 cm) was packed in silica gel by preparing a slurry in pure distilled water. Then, the column was allowed to stand overnight without disturbance. A gradient solvent system (polar to nonpolar) has been used for the separation of various organic compounds from T. fragilis extracts. The solvent and proportion used in column chromatography were F1 (distilled water), F2 (30% chloroform), F3 (70% chloroform) and F4 (100% chloroform).The four fractions F1, F2, F3 and F4 were collected in a prelabeled beaker and allowed to concentrate under reduced temperature in a rotary evaporator (Buchi RII Rotavapour). The fractions were then diluted to a known concentration of 100 mg/ml with DMSO and stored at 4 °C for further analysis.

Bioassay of fractions of column chromatography

The bioassay of column fractions was conducted following the method described by [34] with minor modifications. This assay was performed using five human pathogens, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus cereus and Salmonella enterica typhimurium, by the disc diffusion method, a sterile filter paper disc, 6 mm in diameter was served as the carrier for the algal extract to be tested. The pathogenic bacterial cultures were freshly prepared in nutrient broth and incubated overnight at 37 °C. The 18-hour cultures were spread on Muller Hinton agar media plates and allowed to dry for several minutes. The sterilized discs were immersed in the algal extract (100 µl) and inoculated on Muller Hinton agar media. The plates were then incubated overnight at 37 °C. Ten microliters of 10 mg/ml azithromycin were used as a positive control, and 100 µl of the solvent DMSO was used as a negative control. After 24 h of incubation, the diameter of the zone of inhibition (mm) was recorded. The diameter of the inhibition zones indicated the antibacterial activity of the different fractions of the T. fragilis extracts.The most active fraction was subjected to GC‒MS analysis to characterize the active compounds present in the extract of T. fragilis.

Metabolite profiling using GC‒MS analysis

GC‒MS analysis was performed on the F4 fraction of the crude extracts of T. fragilis obtained by column chromatography. For this purpose, a GC‒MS Clarus 500 Perkin Elmer system and gas chromatography interfaced with a mass spectrometer were used under the following program conditions: Column Elite – 5MS (5% diphenyl/95% dimethyl polysiloxane), 30 mm × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm df, operating in electron impact mode at 70 eV. Highly purified helium was used as the carrier gas at a constant flow of 1 ml/min, an injection volume of 2 µl was used (split ratio of 10:1), the injector temperature was 250 °C, and the ion source temperature was 280 °C. The oven temperature was programmed to increase from 110 °C (isothermal for 2 min) to 10 °C/min. to 200 °C and then 5 °C/min. to 280 °C for 9 min and then held isothermally at 280 °C. The mass spectra were taken at 70 eV with a scanning interval of 0.5 s. The bioactive compounds were identified by the interpretation of mass spectra of GC‒MS using the database of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).

Results

Status and Habitat Preference of Tricleocarpa fragilis along the South Andaman Coast

During the investigation, a thorough survey was undertaken to assess the presence and abundance of seaweeds along the South Andaman coast. The results of this survey revealed a flourishing and luxuriant biomass of T. fragilis in the region (Fig. 2). Interestingly, despite the evident prevalence of this red seaweed species, the available literature on seaweeds in the Andaman Sea has presented a notable scarcity of data pertaining to T. fragilis. This noticeable gap in information related to T. fragilis prompted us to choose it as the focal point of the present study.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Tricleocarpa fragilis from the study area

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The morphology of T. fragilis consists of erect and bushy thalli. The color of the thalli varied from pinkish to red clumps with slightly calcified components (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3
figure 3

Thallus of Tricleocarpa fragilis

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This gametophytic species is up to 10 cm in height. The branches were subdichotomously arranged with branching intervals of 0.4 to 1.2 cm and formed cylindrical (1.2–2.0 mm diameter), glabrous and terete branches at both ends that were constricted and rounded with short apices. The cortex has three to four layers, with the innermost layer inflated and colorless with pigmented outer cortical cells. The thallus was internally composed of medulla with longitudinal filaments (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4
figure 4

Cortex layer of T. fragilis

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T. fragilisis extensively distributed in the intertidal region of South Andaman coast and grows on shells and rocks in shallow areas in large quantities. The species has been exposed to wave action and remains attached to rocks in large solitary clumps (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5
figure 5

Tricleocarpa fragilis growing on rocky substrata

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Biomass production of T. fragilis

The analysis of the seasonal biomass production of T. fragilis from December 2016–December 2017 revealed that the maximum biomass production (2,400 g/m2) occurred in March 2017. However, the minimum biomass production (60 g/m2) was recorded in December 2016. Biomass production increased (1,000 g/m2- 2,400 g/m2) from January 2017 to March 2017, and later, the amount of biomass decreased from April 2017 to May 2017 (1,600 g/m2- 850 g/m2). Furthermore,T. fragilis did not grow until June 2017-November 2017 (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6
figure 6

Biomass production of T. fragilis during Dec. 2016–Dec. 2017

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Effect of physicochemical parameters on seasonal biomass production

The physicochemical parameters were recorded from the sampling location, and the parameters studied were temperature, salinity and pH. The monthly variations in temperature, pH and salinity are presented in Fig. 7. The temperature of the seawater was observed during the study period; the maximum temperature was 34 ± 1.0 °C during the month of March, and the minimum temperature was 28.5 ± 2.17 °C in the month of August. The pH of the sampling station reached a maximum of 8.4 ± 0.1 in December 2017, whereas the minimum pH value of 7.9 ± 0.1 occurred in June. The maximum variation in salinity was 35 psu for December 2016 and December 2017, whereas the minimum salinity of 31 psu was recorded for June and July. The results of the correlation analysis between the physicochemical parameters andT. fragilis biomass are presented in Fig. 8. The results revealed a significant correlation (R = 0.62) between the temperature of the seawater and biomass production, whereas no significant correlation was observed for other environmental parameters, such as pH and salinity.

Fig. 7
figure 7

Physicochemical parameters of seawater at the sampling station during Dec. 2016–Dec. 2017

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Fig. 8
figure 8

Correlations between environmental attributes and T. fragilis biomass during Dec. 2016–Dec. 2017

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Associated flora and fauna

The flora and fauna associated with T. fragilis are shown in Fig. 9. Several organisms belonging to four different phyla, such as Echinodermata, Molluska, Arthropoda and Algae, were recorded during the study period. During the field investigation, organisms of different phyla were found to be attached to the thallus of T. fragilis, and among them, Tripneustes gratilla, Nerita sp., Conus sp., Tridacna crocea, Pugettia producta, Pugettia quadridens and Squilla sp. were recorded. On the other hand, there were also algal associations, and the most commonly associated seaweeds were Padina pavonica, Trichogloe requinii, Neomeris annulata and Caulerpa serrulata.The egg mass of Nudibranch was also found to be attached to the thallus of T. fragilis. The percentages of different Phyla associated with T. fragilis are presented in Fig. 10. Molluska was the dominant phylum and contributed 34% of the total associated groups, followed by Algae (33%), Arthropoda (25%) and Echinodermata (8%).

Fig. 9
figure 9

Associated flora and fauna of T. fragilis

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Fig. 10
figure 10

Percentage composition of different phyla associated with T. fragilis

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Bioassay of the purified fraction

The results obtained from the bioassay of the fractions after open column chromatography revealed that the F4 (100% chloroform) fraction exhibited significant activity against four bacterial pathogens, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, B. cereus and S. enterica typhimurium, but not against monocytogenes (Table 2). The zone of inhibition was well observed and is depicted in Fig. 11. P. aeruginosa was found to be the most susceptible, with a maximum zone of inhibition (22 ± 0.4 mm) against the F4 (100% chloroform) fraction, and no zone of inhibition was observed against the F1, F2 and F3 fractions. Additionally, S. aureus and B. cereus exhibited zones of inhibition only against the F4 fraction, at 19 ± 0.3 mm and 18 ± 0.7 mm, respectively, while no clear inhibition zone was observed for the other three fractions. However, L. monocytogenes was susceptible to the F2 (30% chloroform) fraction, and a zone of inhibition of 16 ± 0.4 mm was detected, while a zone of inhibition was not detected for the F1, F3 and F4 fractions.The pathogen S. enterica Typhimurium was inferred to be sensitive to the F1 (distilled water) and F4 (100% chloroform) fractions, with zones of inhibition of 17 ± 0.8 mm and 21 ± 0.6 mm, respectively. The results suggested that the active compound is a lipophilic substance that inhibits the growth of pathogenic bacteria under laboratory conditions.

Table 2 Zone of inhibition of different fractions by open column chromatography
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Fig. 11
figure 11

Antibacterial activity and inhibition zones of the purified fractions of T. fragilis

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Metabolite profiling using GC‒MS analysis

The active F4 fraction obtained from open column chromatography was subjected to gas chromatography‒mass spectrometry (GC‒MS) to analyze the chemical constituents. The GC‒MS chromatogram of the F4 fractionis presented in Fig. 12. The identified compounds with their respective peak areas and retention times are given in Table 3. A total of 36 peaks were identified in the F4 fraction, with retention times between 24.648 and 53.603 min. The chromatogram revealed that n-hexadecanoic acid had the highest peak area (31.30%) at a retention time of 37.555 min, followed by hexadecanoic acid (19.46%), 1-docosene (9.86%), 1-nonadecene (5.63%), cyclotetracosane (4.33%), behenic alcohol (2.58%), oleic acid (3.42%), and phenol, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl) (3.17%). Other compounds, such as 1-hexadecene, hexadecane, heptadecane, phytol, dibutyl phthalate, and eicosane, were also identified.

Fig. 12
figure 12

GC‒MS chromatogram of the F4 fraction

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Table 3 Metabolite profiling of the F4 fraction by GC‒MS
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Discussion

The Andaman Sea has a unique marine habitat that is rich in biodiversity. Seaweeds are the major component represented by a wide variety of species and are yet to be explored [35] suggested that the wealth of seaweed resources was attributed to the intertidal rocky reefs and the substratum type, and these phenomena are in agreement with the present investigation, in which many varieties of seaweed species were attached to various substratumsat different sampling stations on the intertidal rocky reefs along South Andaman coast. The red seaweed T. fragilis has abundant biomass along the coast of South Andaman. The distribution of T. fragilis in South Andaman region was previously reported by [8]. The physicochemical parameters of seawaters are the major factors representing water quality and directly affect seaweed biomass [12]. In the present study, temperature significantly correlated with the T. fragilis biomass, and it was apparent that higher temperatures were conducive to the growth of T. fragilis. pH is a variable in water quality considerations since it has an impact on physiological and biological processes within the aquatic environment [36]. Variations in the pH of marine water may occur due to rainfall, the rate of evaporation, salinity changes, etc. Organisms living in aquatic systems are adapted to an average pH and do not withstand abrupt changes [36]. The low pH recorded in June might be due to factors such as the influx of fresh water, sea water dilution, decreased temperatures, and the decomposition of organic matter. There are reports that have shown a strong correlation between pH and algal biomass production [11, 12]. However, in the present study, a significant correlation was not detected between pH and biomass production of T. fragilis, indicating that pH has no major impact on the biomass production of the studied species. The salinity of seawater is another environmental attribute that has been reported to have a direct effect on algal growth [10, 37]. In the present investigation, minor fluctuations in salinity were observed, and the minimum salinity in June and July was recorded. The fluctuation in salinity might be due to the rainy season, as in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, when the months of June and July are rainy. However, in the present study, this minor fluctuation in salinity did not significantly correlate with the biomass production of T. fragilis.

Seaweed beds are among the most creative marine habitats and support different flora and fauna, including small crustaceans, gastropods, copepods, polychaetes and some algal species [13, 38]. [13] reported that the red alga Gracilaria vermiculophylla is associated with Malacostraca, Gastropoda and Florideophyceae, and similarly, the associated fauna of the red seaweed Kappaphycus alvarezii has been reported to include fishes, crustaceans, amphipods, polychaetes, mollusks, echinoderms and coelenterates [14]. In another study, [39] reported that the associated fauna of Chaetomorphaaerea were dominated by the phylum Gastropods, followed by Amphipods, Decapods, Isopods and Polychaetes. However, the associated faunal community varies depending upon the morphology and geographic conditions of the host seaweed species [40]. According to [41], the attachment of a species to a substratum has an impact on its associated flora and fauna. In the present investigation, T. fragilis was found to be attached to rocky substratum, corals and shells that may also have provided a suitable environment for the associated fauna. It has been inferred from the current study that the species grows vigorously in the tropical warm waters of the Andaman Sea at moderate temperatures, pH values and salinities. These factors are important factors for culturing this seaweed species under island conditions.

In recent years, there has been a preference for adopting remedies from natural resources for curing illness, as these remedies are known to cause fewer side effects [42]. There are numerous bioactive compounds obtained from marine resources that have been widely used in the form of traditional medicines. In this context, different groups of macroalgae have been reported to play major roles in curing diseases. The macroalgae in the Andaman Sea grow abundantly, with large biomass and the potential to be used for several purposes. Unfortunately, very few species have been studied for their proper utilization. One such red seaweed, T. fragilis, which is abundant along South Andaman coast, has been studied only for its distribution in the Andaman Sea [8] This study is the first to evaluate the bioactive potential of this flourishing species. The antitumor effect of T. fragilis against human hepatoma and leukemia cells was reported by [43], and a study confirmed that the compound n-hexadecanoic acid is responsible for apoptosis. According to the available literature, this study is the first to investigate the antibacterial activity of T. fragilis using chloroform-extracted substances and their characterization. There are also reports on isolated compounds from seaweeds with a broad range of bioactivities, representing their ability to produce bioactive compounds [44]. The present study clearly indicated that the crude chloroform extract and purified fractions of T. fragilis exhibited antibacterial activity against a panel of five targeted bacteria, including both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Since n-hexadecanoic acid was the major bioactive compound obtained in the column fraction, it could be a potential antibiotic substance against bacterial pathogens, as suggested by [45] in one of his studies. This compound is commonly known as palmitic acid, which is a saturated fatty acid found in marine macroalgae and other terrestrial plants. Moreover, it has been suggested that palmitic acid originating from seaweed is a promising compound of anticancer drugs [43]. Some reports have also suggested that other red seaweeds contain antimycobacterial fatty acids (myristic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid and lauric acid) [46], these fatty acids have also been identified in extracts of T. fragilis. Another compound, hexadecanoic acid ethyl ester, has been reported to have fungicidal and bactericidal activity [47]. A study by [48] identified hexadecanoic acid ethyl esters from Bougainvillea x buttiana, which has been reported to have anti-inflammatory activity in BALB/c mice. Similarly, the compound 1-docosene has been reported to have antibacterial activity. [49] identified the presence of the compound 1-docosene from the bacterium Bacillus subtilis obtained from the sea surface layer and showed a zone of inhibition against various gram-positive and gram-negative human pathogens. Compound 1-nonadecene has been reported to have antibacterial activity [50]. An earlier report from [51] identified 1-nonadecene from the actinomycete strain TN256 from the genus Streptomyces,which possesses antibacterial activity against selected bacterial pathogens, including one similar pathogen, Staphylococcus aureus, which was also tested for antibacterial activity in the present study. Another compound, cyclotetracosane, has been reported to have antibacterial and antifungal effects on extracts obtained from Jatopha zeyheri [52]. Another fatty acid compound in T. fragilis extract is oleic acid, which is a monounsaturated fatty acid that inhibits one of the protein kinases (KinA) that affects the initiation of sporulation in B. subtilis [53]. Other compounds, such as phenol and 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl), are natural antioxidants and have been reported to have antifungal activity against plant pathogens [54]. On the other hand, the same compound has been reported for quorum sensing-mediated antifouling activity from the seaweed-associated bacterium Vibrio alginolyticus against the fouling bacterium Serratia marcescens [55]. The compound behenic alcohol, also known as docosanol, is a saturated 22-carbon aliphatic alcohol that has been reported to have antiviral activity againstherpes simplex virus (HSV-1 and HSV-2) [56]. Docosanol 1% cream (Abreva), which is approved by the FDA, has been used for the treatment of herpes labialis [57]. Eicosane is an organic compound with an alkane group, and is a hydrocarbon lipid molecule. This compound has been reported to have antibacterial activity [58] and insecticidal activity [59] Additionally, this compound has been found to have activity against foodborne pathogens [60] Similarly, the compound Phytol is a diterpene and has been reported to have antibacterial activity [61, 62].

The current investigation was carried out to study the potent bioactive compounds, such as fatty acids, diterpenes, phenolic compounds and hydrocarbons, from T. fragilis, which might possess strong antibacterial activity and therefore can be used to develop drugs that are safer than synthetic drugs.Since these compounds were originally obtained from natural sources and are not associated with any health concerns, the compounds identified from T. fragilis could be useful for different applications.

Conclusions

The extensive data regarding the ecology and biochemistry of the red seaweed T. fragilis and its habitat type will enhance our understanding of the crucial role of this species in its ecosystem. The findings on physicochemical parameters and biomass production provide thorough information about the optimal environmental conditions for future cultivation of T. fragilis. The faunal community associated with T. fragilis implies its significance in providing food and shelter to associated organisms. The purification and characterization of compounds have identified major compounds with antibacterial activity. This systematic investigation highlights the potential of T. fragilis as a rich source of bioactive compounds such as fatty acids, diterpenes, and hydrocarbons. From this study, it can be inferred that the seaweed resources of the Andaman Sea have yet to be fully explored. However, the information gathered on the red seaweed T. fragilis will play a crucial role in increasing awareness among coastal communities for the future commercial utilization of this species.

Data availability

Data will be made available upon appropriate request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the laboratory support provided by Pondicherry University. The authors would like to extend their sincere appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2024R194), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Funding

This study was supported by the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2024R194), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bihar, 813210, India

    V. Shajeeda Banu, Rima Kumari, Pankaj Kumar, A. K. Singh, Mohammed Wasim Siddiqui & D. R. Singh

  2. Pondicherry University, Port Blair Campus, Brookshabad, 744101, India

    Udit Mohan

  3. Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

    Manzer H. Siddiqui & Saud Alamri

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Contributions

VSB, UM, DRS conceptualise the work, conducted the research and procured the data. VSB, RK, PK, MWS, MHS, SA, AKS are contributed by scientific advices, data analyses, writing, correcting , and finalising the manuscript.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to V. Shajeeda Banu or Mohammed Wasim Siddiqui.

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Ethics approval and consent to participate

The plant i.e. T. fragilis used in this experiment, is not classified as a scheduled species nor is it a threatened, rare or endangered. Furthermore, as this research constitutes part of a Ph.D. program and was conducted on drifted seaweed, no additional permissions were required for its execution.

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Banu, V.S., Mohan, U., Kumari, R. et al. Insights into the physiology, biochemistry and ecological significance of the red seaweed Tricleocarpa fragilis in the Andaman Sea. BMC Plant Biol 24, 765 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-024-05452-3

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BMC Plant Biology

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